Thursday, November 28, 2019

Water Cycle free essay sample

According to website, â€Å"about 70 percent of the Earths surface is water-covered, and the oceans hold about 96.5 percent of all Earths water† http://ga.water.usgs.gov. â€Å"It circulates in the atmosphere keeping a delicate balance of temperature and sustaining life on the planet. The process of the cycle of water from the oceans to the mountains and back to the oceans again is caused by solar radiation. The process is made up of a few processes that work together; evaporation, condensation, precipitation, evaporate-transpiration and infiltration† http://thehankwilliamsmuseum.com. The Water Cycle, also known as hydrologic cycle, is a process that is constantly recycling the Earths supply of water. This is very important because humans, animals, and plants all need water to stay alive. Like my picture above it shows how the water cycle moves from one place to the next. The water is controlled by the sun, which produces energy in the form of heat. We will write a custom essay sample on Water Cycle or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This heat energy causes the water in the worlds oceans and lakes to warm and evaporate. As the water is heated, it changes its phase from liquid to gas. This gas is called water vapor and this process is called evaporation. When plants give off water vapor, it’s called transpiration. When water evaporates, it rises into the cooler air, collects, and forms clouds. There, the water vapor molecules cool down and change back into liquid water. This is called condensation. As more and more water vapor cools into the clouds, the water droplets that form the clouds become larger and larger. When the swirling winds in the atmosphere can no longer hold them up, the droplets fall from the sky and precipitation is the term for the falling, condensed water molecules, which come down as rain, snow, sleet, or hail depending on conditions in the atmosphere. When water falls to the Earth, the water seeps into the soil because of the force of gravity. This seeping is called infiltration. Then the water flows over the land and into bodies of water, such as rivers and lakes.

Monday, November 25, 2019

Key Elements Of Relationship Survival †Psychology Essay

Key Elements Of Relationship Survival – Psychology Essay Free Online Research Papers Key Elements Of Relationship Survival Psychology Essay I believe there are several key elements that are needed in order for a relationship to survive and without these elements a relationship could be subject to failure. When a person thinks of a relationship, they begin to think of what they would want, need or how they could possibly benefit from it. However, while thinking of reaping for themselves, they fail to think about the other person. The needs of one person may not be the same needs as the other person this leads to the fact that we are all different. However, there are several elements in a relationship that we all have in common and can also relate to. It is important to have some one to share your life with. Some don’t believe in relationships and would prefer to be alone. While I am one who feels that having some one is a part of growing in life, getting older, raising a family; I will enlighten those who don’t believe in relationships the importance of them and the key elements that will assist in holding a strong relationship together. Those elements are attraction, friendship, respect, love, trust, security, intimacy, and the hardest of them all finance. I will now explain my beliefs on how without these elements a relationship is destined for failure. ATTRACTION When a person meets someone the first thing that is distinguished is the way that person looks. Is he or she attractive or not and the answer is usually quick and automatic, it is as though we are programmed with this distinction. Sometimes, after we have made our decision about that person, our conclusion could infer whether we even want to make friends with that person. For instance, if a person is not attractive and has a bad attitude another person may not be very drawn in or comfortable with getting to know that person. However if a person is attractive and has a nice attitude another person may feel more comfortable with communicating and possibly getting to know that person thus establishing an acquaintance that in time develops into a friendship or something more serious. In other words, there is certain criterion that has to be met even before friendship is established. Attraction is a necessary factor in the beginning of a relationship. FRIENDSHIP When friendship is finally initiated the responsibility for keeping a friendship is not difficult as long as the two people are honest and loyal. They have to be good listeners and they have to kindness and compassion for the other person. What I look for in a friend is someone who could be there when I need them and that person does not mind sharing, giving, understanding and being trustworthy and in return I would give that person the same treatment. In a relationship, not only is it a wonderful asset to have friendship but it is also one of the key elements for relationship survival. RESPECT Many people are familiar with the word respect, special thanks to a well known and heavily praised singer and songwriter by the name of Aretha Franklin. Mrs. Franklin’s song spelled out the word R.E.S.P.E.C.T and the singer explained what it means to her. What does respect mean to you? Everybody carries their own personal definition to the word respect. Not just the textbook meaning but what the word really means to you, my idea of respect is do unto others as you would have them do unto you. It is pretty self explanatory, if you like to be treasured then treasure the person you are with. Respect to me is taking the time to bare with a persons feelings if you are having a hard time understanding that person respect them with patience. If you are angry with a person respect that person by not lashing out in anger to cause harm to that person. Respect is not hitting someone, if a person hits someone they are in a relationship with they do not respect that person and neither doe s that person have respect for themselves. A relationship needs respect to move two people closer together, when a person realizes they are very well respected by another person they begin to feel trust. TRUST Trust is the heart of a relationship. â€Å"†¦trust is the belief by one person that anothers motivations towards them are benevolent and honest.† (www.wikipedia.com) I believe that without trust there may as well not be a relationship at all. For instance, someone cheats on their partner but they do not break up with each other the victim may forgive the cheater, however the victim never forgets what the cheater has done. Consequently the relationship is damaged. When the cheater, who is no longer a cheater, leaves home for a walk to the mailbox, the victim is on edge and uncomfortable. The victim is afraid that the used-to-be-cheater is going to cheat again. Going to the mailbox is not nearly enough to worry about but lack of trust can turn the mind of the victim to an obsessive accuser and no one likes to be accused of things all of the time. Without trust, a relationship will burn down and there will not be any pieces left over to gather up and try to put back toget her. Trust is a strong key element of a relationships survival. FINANCE An explanation for finance is usually not needed, but I will state my belief regardless. Marital conflicts arise not because of money itself, but because of a couples differing emotions about money. (â€Å"More Than Just Money† By. Suzanne Woods Fisher, Christianity Today, Spring 2003 Issue.) Without money or the support of money a relationship turns pretty unsteady. â€Å"†¦but they soon find out that money is a tie that can bind more tightly and more painfully than any marriage license.† (â€Å"Before ‘I Do’ Don’t Do This† By. Jeff Opdyke, Love and Money, Wall Street Journal.) Knowing that someone is broke all the time, some people really do not participate in wanting to be in a relationship with that type person. It is not that they are considered as â€Å"gold diggers† or people who are all about money but everyone needs a little financial back up sometimes. Although being careful with spending and other joint efforts fin ancially are also very important. For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil (The Holy Bible 1 Timothy 6:10). Having sure finances is very helpful in keeping a relationship stable and secure. INTIMACY An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship with a great deal of physical and/or emotional intimacy. It is usually characterized by romantic or passionate love and attachment. Sexuality may or may not be involved. (www.wikipedia.com) When adding all of these key elements together two people will be able to ascertain intimacy. Intimacy is a beautiful feeling shared between two people that can lead to lots of wonderful moments in life one of those moments is the art of being in love. Some people mistake intimacy for sex, true enough it is a part of it but in a good relationship that has all of the key elements sex usually follows falling in love. Everybody loves to be caressed with caring and love. Intimacy is a valuable key element in a relationship. LOVE This is the final factor that is not so final because I believe that during the creation of all of the key elements love is perfectly filled in to all of the blanks. Love has several different meanings in the English language, from something that gives a little pleasure (I loved that meal) to something for which one would die for (patriotism, pair-bonding). It can describe an intense feeling of affection, an emotion or an emotional state. In ordinary use, it usually refers to interpersonal love. As an experience usually felt by a person for another person, it is commonly considered impossible to describe. Dictionaries tend to define love as deep affection or fondness†¦ (www.wikipedia.com) In conclusion, if a person ever wonders, through lacking any of the key elements of relationship survival, â€Å"Why am I still with this person?† They can always refer to this element. People go through lots of pain, lacking these important elements at times, but the greatest element of them all could be the reason we all continue to endure, enjoy, or unfortunately lose who we really are, and that element is love. Love is the strongest key element of relationship survival. shawndrell0904@aol.com Research Papers on Key Elements Of Relationship Survival - Psychology EssayThree Concepts of PsychodynamicComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoThe Fifth HorsemanMind TravelResearch Process Part OneCapital PunishmentHarry Potter and the Deathly Hallows EssayThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseWhere Wild and West MeetAnalysis of Ebay Expanding into Asia

Thursday, November 21, 2019

Week 8 Discussion INTL 5400 Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week 8 Discussion INTL 5400 - Case Study Example Therefore, this study will provide a sharp insight on the world problems as well as possible solutions that can be employed to address those problems. The world has been facing numerous problems for many years some of the major factors that contribute to those problems include; Institutional failures (Harvey). Whereby, financial institutions such as banking systems have been so reluctant at establishing necessary policies aimed at regulating the flow of credit in an economy (Harvey). In above connection, policy failures by Breton wood institutions such as International monetary fund and World Bank have contributed significantly to global problems (Harvey). This is because those institutions tend to place strict rules that inhibit growth and expansion of capitalistic economy such the US (Harvey). Environmental factors such as global warming as a result of human activities have significantly contributed to the global problems (Brown, pp1-4). This has further led to a problem of food insecurity especially among African countries (Brown, pp1-4). Among the countries that have been adversely affected by food insecurity problems include; Sudan, Zimbabwe, Somalia, Democratic republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Afghanistan to name just but a few (Brown, pp1-4).Those countries have even exposed other countries into the risk of terrorism attacks, drugs trafficking, spread of diseases as the number of refugees tend to escalate (Brown, pp1-4). In above connection, Debt crisis has been another significant cause of global problems (Harvey). Whereby, capitalistic economies spend a lot of revenues in financing their huge foreign debts rather than using this revenue to finance their economic growth (Harvey). In above connection, unemployment has been reported to be significant global problem that has contributed to global failure as people who are willing

Wednesday, November 20, 2019

Critique of a given research article Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critique of a given research article - Essay Example He evaluated the motivation of first year junior high learners in Indonesia in learning English. The researcher intended to conduct a longitudinal evaluation extending for two years. He attempted to identify changes in motivation and what learners do in and out of class (Lamb 2003, p. 5-6). To do this the researcher combined survey questionnaire with semi-structured interviews. The focal group comprised of 12 individuals. The researcher, additionally, interacted with the learners to obtain qualitative data (Lamb 2003, p. 6-7). Lamb finally concluded that as English becomes adopted by many people, its learning becomes allied to conformity to globalization. Hence the motivation to learn it is dependent on identification. The extensive consultation of up to date literature enables him to evaluate relevant facets of the question. The use of focus group was prudent in finding a solution to conduction research in a multicultural context. Focus groups are an efficient qualitative method providing access to information unavailable without interactions. It provided an avenue to discover indigenous language in order to decipher the learners understanding of phrases used in the questionnaire. However, he fails to identify the variation of focus group employed. Additionally, the researcher did not highlight the guidelines utilized in the selection of members, raising the issue of external validity. Without a representative selection, the results may be invalid. The researcher identified the problems resulting from culture when administering a questionnaire in that they may not interpret the questions as intended by the researcher, he therefore responded to this by gathering qualitative data (Lamb 2003, p. 7). The interaction with the students helped increase the validity of the quantitative data collected through augmenting with qualitative data. From the responses on the liking of the learning of English, the

Monday, November 18, 2019

Comparing and Contrasting Virtue Ethics, Utilitarianism, and Kant's Essay

Comparing and Contrasting Virtue Ethics, Utilitarianism, and Kant's Deontological System - Essay Example theses place not much of importance on which system people must pursue and in its place focus on serving people build up good natured individuality, for instance kindness and generosity. These temperament traits will permit an individual to make the proper decisions later on in life. Virtue theorists as well accentuate the need for people to study how to manage bad conduct of character, like insatiability or resentment. These are described as vices and stand in the way of creating a good individual. In recent time’s virtue ethics has not been a general topic for learning, however it goes back to the ancient Greek philosophers and is therefore the oldest kind of ethical theory in Western viewpoint. Plato talked on the subject of four vital virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance and justice. The earliest methodical explanation of virtue ethics was written down by Aristotle in his well-known work Nichomachean Ethics. According to Aristotle, when populace obtains good conduct of character, they are better capable to control their feelings and their cause. Further this assists to reach ethically right decisions while one is faced with complex alternatives. One of motive why virtue ethics can be admired and why they make a significant involvement to the perceptive of ethics is that they give emphasis to the essential function carried out by motives in ethical queries. To perform from virtue is to perform from some meticulous inspiration; consequently to say that certain virtues are essential for proper moral decisions is to say that proper moral decisions necessitate right motives. There is no need that teleological or deontological ethical theories necessitate reasons to play a role in the assessment of ethical decisions, although promoting proper inspirations is frequently an important constituent of the ethical education of youthful people. It is taught that one ought to wish certain results and that he must desire to achieve certain objectives by the

Friday, November 15, 2019

Feminist Critique of Classical Criminology

Feminist Critique of Classical Criminology The feminist critique of classical criminology has focused first on the marginalization of women in its studies and secondly on the contention that when women are studied, it is in a particularly limited and distorting fashion. Attempts to construct a distinctly feminist criminology have been made with use of methodologies including empiricism and standpoint theory. However, these theories have received criticism for their essentialist assumptions and universal claims. The feminist criminological theories detailed in this opinion have resulted from these criticisms and focus on postmodern ideas which consider more carefully how categories of identity are constituted and how power relates to knowledge. Particular attention will be given to the impact of Foucauldian notions of normalisation and disciplining power on the explanations of female conformity and deviance. Discourses on hegemonic masculinity which have grown from feminist epistemologies and methodologies will also be address ed. For every one hundred males convicted of serious offences there are only 18 females so convicted. Age and sex remain the best predictors for crime and delinquency better than class, race or employment status.(heidensohn, 1995, p143)  [1]. The discipline of criminology has been increasingly criticised by feminists and pro-feminist writers for its lack of gender analysis. As Ngaire Naffine has asserted, the costs to criminology of its failure to deal with feminist scholarship are perhaps more severe than they would be in any other discipline.(Naffine, p6)  [2]  The reason being that the most consistent and prominent fact about crime is the sex of the offender. As a rule, crime is something that men do, not women, so the denial of the gender question and the dismissal of feminists who wish to tease it out seems particularly perverse.(Naffine. 1996, p6)  [3]   The field of literature on criminology would suggest that it is a discipline of academic men studying criminal men and, at best, it would appear that women represent only a specialism, not the standard fare. .(Naffine. 1996, p1)  [4]  Similarly feminism as a substantial body of social, political and philosophical thought, does not feature prominently in conventional criminological writing. Feminism in its more ambitious and influential mode is not employed in the study of men, which is the central business of criminology. The message to the reader is thus that feminism is about women, while criminology is about men. (Naffine. 1996, p2)  [5]  Naffine has stated, the neglect of women in much mainstream criminology has, therefore, skewed criminological thinking in a quite particular way. It has stopped criminologists seeing the sex of their subjects, precisely because men have occupied and colonised all of the terrain. (Naffine. 1996, p8)  [6]   Traditional criminology which has sought to explain female criminality has been almost summarily rejected by feminists. The feminist critique of classical criminology was inaugurated by Carol Smart who rejected the biological positivist account of criminality propounded by Lombroso and Ferrero. Smart contended that the common stance, which unites classical theorists, is based upon a particular misconception of the innate character and nature of women, which is in turn founded upon a biological determinist position.(Smart. 1977, p27)  [7]  The emphasis on the determined nature of human behaviour, asserted Smart, is not peculiar to the discipline of criminology, or to the study of women, but is particularly pertinent to the study of female criminality because of the widely-held and popular belief in the non-cognitive, physiological basis of criminal actions by women.  [8]   Feminist criminologists sought to rectify the inadequacies of traditional criminology through new methodologies and research. Two of the earliest and most prominent schools of thought were feminist empiricism and standpoint feminism. Much of the early writing of feminists in criminology assumed the methods and assumptions of empiricist criminology. The concern of these early feminists was that women had been left out of the research of scientists and the result was a necessarily skewed and distorted science.  [9]  It accounted for men and explained their behaviour in a rigorous and scientific way, but it did not account for women, though it purported to do so. Feminist criminologists pointed out the blatant sexism of this double standard and argued that women and men should receive the same scientific treatment. Harding labels this method of thought feminist empiricism.  [10]  To feminist empiricists, scientific claims are thought to be realisable, but have not yet been realised in relation to women. Feminist empiricists alleged that classical criminologists had not considered the effects of their own biases and preconceptions on their work: on what they chose to do, how they did it, and what they made of it.  [11]  Thus feminist empiricists endeavour to develop a scientific understanding of women as the missing subjects of criminology, to document their lives both as offenders and as victims. They raise objections to the empirical claims made about women, when those claims are based on meagre evidence, with a good sprinkling of prejudice.  [12]   Naffine has suggested that the principle shortcoming of feminist empiricism is its tendency to leave the rest of the discipline in place, unanalysed and unchallenged.  [13]  The underlying assumption is that criminology is somehow competent and impartial when it is not dealing with women and so the gendered nature of criminal law and the criminal justice system remains unexamined. The empirical methods and the epistemological assumptions of traditional criminology are generally allowed to stand, as are its understandings of men. Feminist empiricism, therefore, fails to ask about the significance of institutions which have been organised around men.  [14]   Another feminist criminology which was constructed from the critique of classical theory was standpoint feminism. Standpoint feminism contended that criminologys continuing preoccupation with the viewpoint of men was a function of power. For standpoint feminists, the solution to criminologys ignorance of womens experiences was to turn to women themselves and seek their own accounts of the criminal experience. As Carol Smart has observed: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the epistemological basis of this form of feminist knowledge is experienceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦feminist experience is achieved through a struggle against oppression; it is, therefore, argued to be more complete and less distorted than the perspective of the ruling group of men. A feminist standpoint then is not just the experience of women, but of women reflexively engaged in struggle. In this process it is argued that a more accurate or fuller version of reality is achieved. This stance does not divide knowledge from values and politics but sees knowledge arising from engagement.  [15]   Thus the adoption of the standpoint of women is fundamentally a moral and political act of commitment to understanding the world from the perspective of the socially subjugated. It assumes that the identity of the subject matters; the epistemological site of the woman from below provides better insights into her condition. Thus, standpoint theorists attempt to close the gap between the knower and the known.  [16]   Pat Carlen has made use of standpoint theory in her research seeking to invest the female offender with the sort of rationality and purpose which had previously only been found in the male offender.  [17]  Carlen took an unusual step by literally making the criminal women who formed the subject of her study the authors of their own stories.  [18]  One of Carlens stated purposes was to make us realise that the criminality of women is serious and intentional.  [19]  Other standpoint theorists have suggested that the viewpoint of women provides a more secure grasp of certain aspects of reality, particularly the realities of disadvantages and political oppression than the standpoint of men. Standpoint theory can also be used effectively to highlight the injuries done to women as victims of crime. Standpoint feminism is by its nature democratic, its subversive potential does not depend on the academic credentials of the author.  [20]   Despite the contribution of standpoint theory to feminist criminology critics of this methodology have not failed to highlight its manifest inadequacies. These inadequacies include a lack of constituency and the tendency of standpoint feminism to universalise the category woman. These are the questions which standpoint feminism has no clear answer to. The notion of a womans standpoint, the suggestion that women as a category possess a particular and superior view of the world, is necessarily to select just one of the many viewing points from which women look on the world, and then to impose that one view on all.  [21]  These criticisms and others have been highlighted most eloquently by black and Third World feminists. Marcia Rice has taken issue with mainstream feminist criminology accusing it of being blind to its own essentialising tendencies. Given the history and theoretical objectives of feminist criminology, one might have assumed that the monolithic, unidimensional perspectives employed by traditional theorists would have been abandoned for a more dynamic approach.  [22]   However, Rice contends, almost without exception, feminist criminological research from 1960 to the present has focused on white female offenders. Sexist images of women have been challenged, but racist stereotypes have largely been ignored.  [23]  While there has been some acknowledgement that black women are not dealt with in the same way as white women, no research has been carried out which compares the sentences of black and white women.  [24]  This is an important point as a failure to consider the potentially different experiences of black women may invalidate the research findings. Race may be as important as gender, if not more so.  [25]   Rice has also criticised the perceived assumption in much feminist criminological writing that all women are equally disadvantaged. For example ODwyer, Wilson and Carlen write: Women in prison suffer all the same deprivation, indignities and degradations as male prisoners. Additionally they suffer other problems that are specific to them as imprisoned women.  [26]  Rice contends that this statement is inadequate as it stands. It fails to acknowledge the added problems of the isolation of and discrimination against black women. Bryan et al, for example, point to the fact that a higher percentage of black than white women in prison are on prescribed psychotropic drugs.  [27]  This requires explanation. Furthermore, many black women serving long sentences are not indigenous but are from West Africa and are serving sentences for drug offences. These groups of female prisoners in Britain are often awaiting deportation and have special needs; for example, contact is usually severed with their families and there are problems of communication.  [28]   Thus, asserts Rice, feminist criminologists have developed a theoretical approach which emphasises the significance of patriarchal oppression and sexist ideological practices. The main problem with this is that, in assuming a universal dimension of mens power, this approach has ignored the fact that race significantly affects black womens experiences in the home, in the labour market, and of the criminal justice system.  [29]   Criminologists have responded in many ways to the concerns of standpoint theorists. The responses focused on in this essay are those which pursue the intellectual problems generated by standpoint theory, and so consider more carefully how categories of identity are constituted and how power relates to knowledge. An examination of female criminality and unofficial deviance suggests that we need to move away from studying infractions and look at conformity instead, because the most striking thing about female criminal behaviour on the basis of all the evidence is how notably conformist to social mores women are.  [30]   Increasingly feminist criminologists have turned to postmodern (and poststructuralist) explanations of the way power and knowledge intersect to interrogate normalisation techniques and womens social and legal conformity. Many of these theories and methodologies have been based on the work of influential French philosopher Michel Foucault. Foucault has argued that disciplinary power acts on the individual body in order to render it more powerful, productive, useful and docile. Foucaults genealogies seek to give an account of how our ways of thinking and doing dominate and control us.  [31]  In modern society disciplinary power has spread through the production of certain forms of knowledge, such as the positivistic human sciences, and through the emergence of disciplinary techniques of surveillance, and examination which facilitates the process of obtaining knowledge about individuals. Disciplinary practices create the divisions healthy/ill, sane/mad which by virtue of their autho ritative statuses can be used as effective means of normalisation.  [32]  Disciplinary power secures its hold by created desires, attaching individuals and their behaviour to specific identities, and establishing norms against which individuals and their behaviours and bodies are judged and against which they police themselves.  [33]  Prevailing notions of identity and subjectivity are maintained and created not through violence or active coercion but by individual self-surveillance. Thus, There is no need for arms, physical violence, material constraints. Just a gaze. An inspecting gaze, a gaze which each individual under its weight will end up by interiorising to the point that he is his own overseer, each individual this exercising their surveillance over, and against himself  [34]   Forms of knowledge such as criminology, psychiatry and philanthropy are directly related to the exercise of power, while power itself creates new objects of knowledge and accumulates new bodies of information. Foucaults interpretation of disciplinary power has allowed feminist criminologists to exact a resounding critique on feminisms which have utilised structural accounts of patriarchal power. It has also prompted these criminologists to interrogate the diverse relationships that women occupy in relation to the social field consisting of multiple sites of power and resistance. Feminists have used Foucaults analytics of power to show how the various strategies of oppression around the female body from ideological representations of femininity to concrete procedures of confinement and bodily control are central to the maintenance of hierarchical social relations.  [35]  A pertinent example of feminist criminological research which has uncovered the use of panoptic techniques on women has been done by Pat Carlen who interviewed 15 Scottish sheriffs on their handling of women who were charged and imprisoned for criminal offences.  [36]  Carlen observed the considerable degree of embarrassment in the sheriffs feelings when a woman appeared in court as accused. They seemed to feel uneasy first because they knew that the women were being dealt with in a highly inappropriate penal tariff system to which they could not respond and second because of the womens role as mothers. The conflict was resolved by the sheriffs differentiating between good and bad m others. The sheriffs then redefine the prison to which the women are sent with all the appropriate paraphernalia of security and restraint, as a comfortable place, suitable for a spot of kindly paternal discipline (emphasis added).  [37]  Thus disciplinary power works to examine, diagnose and reform criminal women whilst the sheriff fulfills the role of normalising judge. Colin Sumner has provided an insightful exposition of Foucauldian normalisation in his work on gender and the censure of deviance.  [38]  Normalising power works through the norm, which is a mixture of legality and nature, prescription and constitution,  [39]  to produce a physics of a relational and multiple power, which has its maximum intensity not in the person of the King, but in the bodies that can be individualised by these relations.  [40]  It does not replace law, rather law is subsumed: the law operates more and more as a norm, the judicial institution is increasingly incorporated into a continuum or apparatuses whose functions are for the most part regulatory.  [41]  Discipline supports law, by its system of micro power and neutralises counter-power or resistance with the principle of mildness-production-profit rather than the levy of violence. Normalisation involves, then, a combination and generalisation of panoptic techniques subsuming other forms of pow er.  [42]  Examples of the practical implications for women who transgress the norms of sex-role expectations can be found in research which details the excessive harshness of the courts when dealing with women offenders.  [43]  Women defendants seem strange and less comprehensible than men: they offend both against societys behavioural rules about property, drinking, or violence and also against the more fundamental norms which govern sex-role behaviour. The differentiation between the sexes is scaled to protect girls from themselves, but it allows boys to be boys.  [44]   Thus through techniques of normalisation, a complex composition of hegemonic, and therefore social, censures emerged and, eventually, became the foundation of positivist and administrative forms of criminology.  [45]  Normalisation is presented as a strategy which produces a disciplined individual who is normally so unaware of the place of individualisation in the general strategies of domination that s/he operates within the illusion of a rationalistic voluntarism, while performing the economic, political, sexual and ideological roles required by sustained capital accumulation and bourgeois hegemony.  [46]   Despite its appeal to and appropriation by many feminists, Sumner has criticised Foucaults concept of normalisation for glossing over the role of the censure of women and femininity in the hegemonic ideologies constituting the political and economic role of the state.  [47]  Indeed, Sumner contends, the formation of the modern subject is a profoundly gendered process, as indeed is the formation of the modern state. Modern social censures and forms of social regulation are fundamentally gendered.  [48]  As Catherine MacKinnon has said: The state is male in a feminist senseà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The liberal state coercively and authoritively constitutes the social order in the interests of men as a gender, through its legitimising norms, relation to society, and substantive policies.  [49]   Sumner criticises the lack of analysis of mens domination, patriarchy and hegemonic masculinist ideologies in Foucaults understanding of the concepts of right, justice, contract and agency.  [50]  The state form itself is profoundly masculine in that its fundamental organising concepts, institutions, procedures and strategies are historically imbued with, and are themselves descriptive of, an ideological notion of masculinity that is hegemonic; and that this hegemonic masculinity which contributes to the very form of state power, is not so much an effect of mens economic power as an overdetermined historical condensation of the economic, political and ideological power of ruling-class men.  [51]  Thus, it must be observed that the normalisation process concomitant with capitalist development contains with it the censure of the feminine and of deviant masculinities. This censure is part of the dominant ideological knowledge that the powerful try to invest in the practices and thus the bodies of subjects.  [52]   This notion of hegemonic masculinity which Sumner highlights in his critique of Foucault is a growing area of criminological research which draws on feminist theory and postmodern critique and it seeks to interrogate the gender question behind the criminality of men. The study of masculinities in a criminological context was inaugurated by Australian criminologist Bob Connell.  [53]   one very important new topic is already on the agenda: masculinityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..If emphasis on gender is a key aspect of feminist work, then the further study of masculinity must be vital. Without it there will be no progress.  [54]   Criminologists seeking to realign the gender question within criminology have sought an understanding of the crimes of men through reference to a rather different conceptualisation of masculinity; not just that the crimes of individual men might be explained through reference to their masculinity, but rather the idea that society itself is presently experiencing what has been termed a crisis of masculinity, a crisis made manifest in both the changing nature and extent of mens criminality.  [55]  Criminology for so long the target of feminist critique as the apotheosis of a masculinist discipline in terms of its epistemological assumptions, methodology and institutional practices, might at last appear to be addressing its very own sex question by seeking to engage with the sexed specificity of its object of study the fact that crime is, overwhelming, an activity engaged in by men.  [56]  The target of feminist critiques of the discipline which have emerged during the past 20 years has been with the nature of this recognition, the way in which the sex-specificity of crime has been conceptualised. How is it possible to recognise the diversity of mens lives whilst also recognising the existence of a culturally exalted form of masculinity? For Bob Connell the answer lies in the concept of hegemonic masculinity, which is always constructed in relation to various subordinated masculinities as well as in relation to women.  [57]  Central to hegemonic masculinity is the idea that a variety of masculinities can be ordered hierarchically. Gender relations, Connell argues, are constituted through three interrelated structures: labour, power and cathexis. What orderliness exists between them is not that of a system but, rather, a unity or historical composition. What is produced is a gender order, a historically constructed pattern of power relation between men and women and definitions of femininity and masculinity.  [58]  The politics of masculinity cannot be confined to the level of the personal. They are also embedded in the gender regime, part of the organisational sexualit y of institutions and society generally.  [59]  The construction of hegemonic masculinity as a unifying and all-encompassing ideology of the masculine envisages an image of mens beliefs and interests which is then seen as somehow intruding into the sacred realm of theoretical or institutional practices.  [60]   Criminology largely remains bifurcated around a man/woman axis in which general universal theories of crime causation have been taken to apply to men whilst the crimes of women are assessed from, or in relation to, the male norm.  [61]  Women have been seen as an aberration to this norm, to be as other, somehow less than fully male. However, crucially, one result of this simultaneous focus on a) the individual offender and b) the constitution of men as the norm has been that the sex-class of men have themselves been separated out into two groups: the offending criminal man and the non-offending man. It has been feminist work, especially in the area of mens violences, which has challenged the subsequent pathologising of the crimes of men that results from such a division, by seeking to explore instead what men may share, as opposed to the attributes of the individual criminal man.  [62]  Within mainstream criminology men considered to be deviant or pathological have been contr asted with the normal and the law-abiding. Whilst some criminologists may have sought to blur this distinction, it is a bifurcation between different types or categories of men which nonetheless remains the norm of criminological discourse. It has been in seeking to understand this issue of what men may share that, in the work of the second phase criminologists writing from feminist and pro-feminist perspectives, the concept of masculinity has been seen to have had a particular, and rather different, heuristic purchase.  [63]   Despite the potential of the theory of a hegemonic masculinity to be an explanatory variable of crimes by men, there are conceptual limits to its appeal. Collier asserts that the concept of hegemonic masculinity is of limited use in seeking to engage with such a complex male subject.  [64]  What we are dealing with is really a description or a list of masculine traits, each conjuring up powerful images about men and crime. In theory, each of the characteristics associated with hegemonic masculinity could apply equally to women as to men. Not all crime is to be explained by reference to hegemonic masculinity.  [65]  The concept of hegemonic masculinity has been used both as a primary and underlying cause of particular social effects and, simultaneously, as something which is seen as resulting from or which is accomplished through, recourse to crime.  [66]  Not only does this reflect a failure to resolve fully the tendency towards universalism, it can also be read as tautol ogical.  [67]  Thus, it is alleged, what is actually being discussed in accounts of hegemonic masculinity and crime is, in effect, a range of popular ideologies of what constitute ideal or actual characteristics of being a man. Hegemonic masculinity does not afford a handle on the conflicts generated between material and ideological networks of power. Nor, importantly, does it address the complexity and multi-layered nature of the social subject.  [68]   Thus it would appear that despite the breakthroughs promised by research into masculinities they have been seen to face some of the same problems associated with early feminism: totalising discourse and essentialist claims. An adequate theory of masculinity which does not resort to totalising discourse and essentialist claims would be a welcome addition to criminological discussions of gender. Feminist criminologists have long sought to highlight the manifest inadequacies of classical criminologys ignorance and distortion of women and crime. Smart has contended that the biological determinist position propounded by Lombroso and Ferrero has promulgated a misconception of the innate character and nature of women.  [69]  Attempts to rectify this distortion were made through the use of feminist empiricism and standpoint feminism which endeavoured to garner womens perspectives by turning to women themselves and seeking their own accounts of the criminal experience. However, these theories could not escape accusations of universalism and lack of constituency leveled by black feminists and postmodernists alike. Michel Foucaults theory of disciplinary power has been used by feminist criminologists to explain both the social conformity of women and the constitution of deviant womens identities in a social field consisting of multiple sites of power and knowledge. Feminist crimi nologists have used Foucaults analytics of power to show how the various strategies of oppression around the female body from ideological representations of femininity in classical criminology to concrete procedures of confinement and bodily control are central to the maintenance of hierarchical social relations. A relatively new development in criminological theory which concerns the issues of gender has been the idea of hegemonic masculinity. Connell has characterised hegemonic masculinity as a gender regime of sorts which is part of the organisational sexuality of institutions and society generally.  [70]  Hegemonic masculinity captures the ideology of masculinity pervading theoretical and established practices. The critique of hegemonic masculinity has focused on its tautological implications, and the contention that it is merely descriptive of masculine traits and cannot be used to engage with a complex male subject. Despite these criticisms, discourse on masculinity is a step forward for feminists who have long lobbied for adequate analysis of the role of gender in the criminological discipline.

Wednesday, November 13, 2019

Lady Macbeth :: essays research papers

(1.5.57-58) In this scene Lady Macbeth believes that Macbeth lacks the ability to fulfil the witches’ second prophecy. She learns that Duncan is coming to visit her and she calls upon supernatural agents to fill her with cruelty. Lady Macbeth says â€Å"Come, thick night, And pall thee in the dunnest smoke of hell†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In this quote she is asking the supernatural agents to fill her with the darkest smoke of hell. (5.1.38) In this scene a gentlewoman who waits on Lady Macbeth has seen her walking in her sleep and has asked a doctor’s advice. Together they observe Lady Macbeth make the gestures of repeatedly washing her hands as she relives the horrors that she and Macbeth have carried out and experienced. Lady Macbeth says â€Å"Hell is murky.† She is remembering the murder that she and Macbeth committed. She states, â€Å"Yet who would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him?† remembering how bloody the Macbeth’s hands were. She felt horrified that they had committed this evil act of murder. These two quotes go together because first she is asking to be filled with the darkness of hell and then says later in the play that hell is murky. These two quotes show that she had asked to be filled with hell and then later after committing these sinful actions she describes hell as being dark and unclear. (2.2.82-83) Here in this scene Lady Macbeth is talking to Macbeth about the murdering of Duncan. Macbeth’s hands were red with blood from killing Duncan and Lady Macbeth says â€Å"My hands are of your color, but I shame To wear a heart so white.† This quote means that she is in the middle of this incident but she wishes not to be in it because of its brutality. She feels ashamed because she made Macbeth make sure he fulfilled the witches prophecies. (5.1.44-45) In this scene Lady Macbeth is sleep walking and is commenting on the wife of the Thane of Fife. â€Å"The Thane of Fife had a wife. Where is she now?† This quote shows that she is afraid now for her and her husband. She realizes that the consequences of their actions will now decide their future, and her future does not look good. She is also wondering if she will ever be forgiven for her and her husbands evil actions. These two quotes show how Lady Macbeth feels about being a wife of a thane and about the murdering of Duncan.